Columns were maintained in a glasshouse at 20 °C (±5 °C) with supplementary lighting to give a 16-h day. Soil columns were maintained ATM/ATR inhibitor cancer at field capacity by watering with sterile (autoclaved) deionised water; the quantity added was determined by weight. At each destructive harvest, a series of analyses were undertaken as described below. At each destructive harvest, root and shoot biomass were measured following oven drying at 80 °C until constant

weight. Prior to drying, sub-samples of roots were weighed, cleared in 10% KOH and after rinsing in water, stained using 0.1% Chlorazol Black E lactoglycerol solution containing equal volumes of 80% lactic acid, glycerol and deionised water (Brundrett et al. 1984). After staining, the roots were transferred into glycerol for destaining and storage. Colonisation was quantified according to McGonigle et al. (1990) at ×200 magnification and data expressed as per

cent root length colonised. After the root systems had been removed, the soil was homogenised gently prior to sub-sampling for immediate determination of soil moisture and organic matter content (loss on ignition). Additional 25 g sub-samples were analysed for microbial biomass-C using the fumigation-extraction method described by Vance et al. (1987) and quantified using a correction factor of 0.45 (Wu et al. 1990). DNA was extracted from the soil using a PowerSoil DNA kit (Mo-Bio see more Laboratories Inc., Carlsbad, CA, USA) since this particular kit enables DNA cleaning. DNA extracted from the soil was amplified Immune system in the ITS-2 region for fungi and the 23S ribosomal subunit for bacteria. The fungal primers for amplification of the ITS-2 region were 5.8Sfor (5′-GCA TCG ATG AAG AAC GCA GC-3′) and FITSrev (5′-dyeD3 ATA TGC TTA AGT TCA GCG GGT-3′), labelled with the green WellRED dyeD3 (Sigma–Proligo, Gillingham, UK). The bacterial primers for amplification of the 23S ribosomal subunit (Anthony et al. 2000) were 23S for (5′-GCG ATT TCY GAA YGG GGR AAC CC-3′) and the reverse primer (23Srev) (5′-dyeD4

TTC GCC TTT CCC TCA CGG TAC T-3′), labelled with the blue WellRED dyeD4 (Sigma–Proligo, Gillingham, UK). Bacterial and fungal restriction digests were undertaken using the restriction enzyme HaeIII and buffer 2 (New England BioLabs, Hitchin, Hertfordshire, UK) for fungal samples and enzyme MseI and buffer C (Promega, Southampton, UK) for bacterial samples prior to analyses on a CEQ 8000 DNA analysis system (Beckman Coulter Inc., High Wycombe, UK). The relative abundance of each peak occurring (within each sample) at a dye signal greater than 100 was included in assessment, as this ruled out any background signal interference, with any shoulder peaks (associated with base pair addition through the use of PCR amplification) removed from analysis by grouping fragments with a band width of 1.25 bp ( Edel-Hermann et al., 2004 and Hodgetts et al., 2007).