Consideration must be paid to the subsequent separation and Venetoclax concentration identification of the proteins containing the labeled thiols. The approaches

to do this rely on electrophoresis, LC–MS and mass spectrometry, either alone or in combination, and the advantages and disadvantages of the various approaches are discussed below. Gel based protein separation, typically by the two-dimensional electrophoresis (2DE) of complex protein samples, has been used broadly to separate many labeled thiol proteins. Essential to obtaining reliable results using this approach is an experimental design that minimizes variability between the samples being compared, otherwise false positive and false negative rates will be high. Since a significant source of variability in 2DE is inter-gel variation when comparing gel http://www.selleckchem.com/products/otx015.html pairs,

the difference in gel electrophoresis (DIGE) method has been developed because it allows for comparison of two samples within the same gel [54]. DIGE makes use of fluorescently resolvable thiol alkylating probes that allows multiple samples to be combined and compared on the same gel. By combining protein samples with modified thiols alkylated with these probes, differences in fluorescence can be compared on the same gel and the presence of a modification reliably established using the labeling strategy outlined in Figure 3b [35]. Other sources of variability include biological variability between biological replicates and technical variability in sample workup before sample mixing [55]. One way in which these forms of variability can be minimized is by the application of sample pooling based on biological variance analysis (BVA), which has shown to be an effective means of minimizing false positive and false negative results [40•, 55 and 56]. These considerations are particularly important

for studies where the thiol modification may affect only a small Endonuclease proportion of the protein thiols present (e.g. low levels of endogenous ROS production or protein S-nitrosation) and high statistical power is desired. Although gel based methods allow for the identification of thiol proteins sensitive to redox modifications, the modified cysteine(s) on the protein and the extent of the modification cannot be obtained. In addition, the use of 2DE results in the underrepresentation of hydrophobic membrane proteins because of their relative incompatibility with the essential isoelectric focusing step. Furthermore, all gel-based methods tend to favor the identification of abundant proteins. Alternative means of gel-based separation can be applied to these proteomic screens; for example blue native-PAGE separation of mitochondrial respiratory complexes [57]. Using thiol alkylating probes amenable to LC–MS based separation affords the potential for significantly more information to be obtained from a redox proteomic study.