In these experiments, the orientation discrimination task was simply performed on the second stimulus without reference to the first one. This was done either by randomizing

the orientations of the composing lines in the first stimulus (Experiments III and IV; Figs 3A and 4A), or by entirely removing the first stimulus (Experiment V; Fig. 5A). The detailed designs of each of these experiments were as follows. In Experiment Ulixertinib manufacturer III, even though the first stimulus composed of randomly oriented lines was irrelevant to the orientation discrimination task performed on the second stimulus, the subjects were required to perform an additional luminance task on the first stimulus to ensure that some voluntary attention was still allocated to it. The luminance of randomly oriented lines in the first stimulus of a trial was either identical (0.36 cd/m2) or randomly interleaved (0.61 or 0.11 cd/m2; Fig. 3A). The subjects performed a dual task: first, to report whether the random lines in the first stimulus were iso-luminant, and then to judge whether the second stimulus (composed of iso-oriented and iso-luminant lines) was tilted clockwise or counterclockwise relative to its mean orientation (55° or 140°, i.e. the standard orientation used in Experiments I and II), which can be established internally by the

subjects within a block of trials (Vogels & Orban, 1985; Shiu & Pashler, 1992). This manipulation contrasts with Experiments IV NVP-AUY922 and V, in which less or no spatial attention was required to allocate to the first stimulus: in Experiment IV, where the first stimulus consisted of randomly oriented and iso-luminant lines (Fig. 4A), and in Experiment V, where the first stimulus was not displayed but the gaze shift was still required (Fig. 5A), the subjects were simply instructed

to perform the orientation discrimination task on the second stimulus around its mean orientation. The subjects were trained for 6 days, with eight blocks of trials (a total of 300–400 trials) per day. Auditory feedback was given on error responses. The trained (i.e. standard) orientation in all experiments was 55°, whereas both 55° and 140° orientations were examined in the post-training test for learning specificity. In Experiment I, two groups of N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate transferase subjects were trained in the congruent and incongruent conditions, respectively; in the other experiments, all subjects were trained in the congruent condition. To counterbalance eye movement training, every four blocks of training trials were interleaved with a block of 50 saccade-balanced trials. In these trials, no stimulus was displayed; the subjects made a gaze shift opposite to that in the training blocks, and performed an irrelevant task to discriminate a slight change in luminance of the shifted FP (brighter or dimmer than the initial FP in the screen center).